Rebuilding Northern Ireland: the geography of peace

10 years ago was established the Good Friday Agreement (1998) bringing an end to 30 years of civil war and struggle between the 2 communities in Northern-Ireland. This course reviews the changes that occurred from the troubles to the peace process and examines the role of segregation within the communities.

Northern-Ireland during the troubles
The history of Northern-Ireland is the history of a deeply segregated society patch-work. All the aspect of the social life is leading by the ethno-nationalist belonging: work, education, leisure, living space etc. Discrimination, fear and mistrust remained in the Northern-Irish society. The ethno-religious conflict was also linked with a dropping economy. The unemployment rate was the highest in the UK (30%) and no investment came to the North due to a massive lack of infrastructure. Road network, social and public services were totally out of date; most of people lived in deep state of poverty. During 30 years almost all the financial support of London was concentrated on security and military presence. Therefore, Northern-Ireland experienced a massive out-migration until the 80s.



Segregation
Segregation is a process which divides people; it excludes parts of the population from social or economic opportunities. Segregation may be based on race, ethnicity, gender, religion etc. Protestants and catholic have lived like two parallel societies with very restrictive relations between them. In Northern-Ireland, the place or the social environment you come from can have a profound effect on your mobility, your social relation etc. Many Northern-Irish had only few or no contact at all with the other community since they were used to socialise in different places. The function of segregation during the troubles was to provide a feeling of security and solidarity within the community.
Marcuse (1994, 35) argues that walls that divide people in cities represent “power, but they also represent insecurity; domination but at the same time fear; protection but at the same time isolation”

Belfast: the segregated city
In Belfast, segregation is not dated from the troubles but has always been a key feature of the social life. English and Scottish settlers who first inhabited the city have founded Belfast in the 1600s. The Irish Catholics resided outside. In the 19th century Belfast has become the first immigrant-industrial city in Ireland. Many migrants came from the mainland (Great Britain) but a sizeable amount was Catholic.
The social context was quite different than this in the British city like Manchester or Glasgow since the immigrants were not foreigners but came from the same country just outside the city. Yet segregation characterized the social and economic life of the city. Catholics had not the same rights than protestant and remained a marginalized population. The inequalities in Ireland leaded by the British government between the two communities brought about the conflict.
Belfast has become a frontier-city (Kotek, 1999): “a territory for two different dreams” located on fault lines of ethnic, religious or ideological wholes.
In 1921 a the island is split in two parts: 6 counties of the north-east of Ireland would belong to the UK, this division has given rise the violence in Ulster till the end of the century. By the 70s, segregation was concretised by physical barriers between the ethnic enclaves. Walls have been erected, murals have marked the ethnicity of neighbourhoods and paramilitary infrastructures such as checkpoints have totally shaped the urbanscape. Belfast was a fortified city dominated by a military landscape symbol of the civil war.

Peace line between Shankill and Falls in Belfast

The way to peace and the Good Friday Agreement
The relationship between the 2 opposites political parties in Northern-Ireland, the SLDP and Sinn Féin, only started to improve in the 90s. In August 1994, the IRA (the Irish military branch of Sinn Féin) calls a ceasefire, followed later by the Combined Loyalist Commando. The peace process seemed to be started before the bomb-attack of Canary Wharf, London, in 1996 by the IRA.
A historical agreement has at last brought an end to the conflict with a political arrangement between both sides. The political cooperation was going to create an efficient government in Northern-Ireland known as the ‘Home Rule’. The Good Friday/Belfast Agreement has completely reformed the policing body (several military organizations controlled the country before). It negotiated the decomissioning of weapons and reformed totally the criminal justice. But if this Agreement seems to create a stable political framework for Northern-Ireland, some other aspects has been very controversial. 500 prisoners have been released including numbers of terrorists which remains a real shock for the victims. The Agreement did not mentioned any social aspects of people victims of violence. It did not give solutions to resolve the segregation in Northern-Ireland.

Carving a geography of peace
Peace has had a considerable effect in the townscape since the troubles has a very material and visual presence throughout Northern-Ireland. The infrastructure of defence such as checkpoints, watch towers, security bases have been little by little dismantled provoking a dramatically change in the architecture of towns and neighbourhoods. Between 1995 and 2005, 63 military bases were closed and demolished. Normalisation policies, as Ellis and McKay argue (2000, 53), have undoubtedly lifted ‘the psychological strain of living under siege’.
Time to peace is also time to replace all the dated infrastructure by massive investment in water, health, education, public services etc. The British government transferred the military sites to the Northern-Ireland councils. The Maze prison, symbol of the conflict where most of the terrorists and prisoners were in jail, constitute now an important debate for the future of this site. The Maze prison (called H-blocks or Long Kesh as well) occupies a huge site near Lisburn, 15 miles south Belfast. And the opinions are very wide about its near future:
- ‘As far as we (DUP) are concerned every square inch should be razed to the ground’ (DUP 2004).
- ‘It is one of the most important twentieth-century buildings in the world’ (Sinn Féin 2005).
Managers plan to create a mutli-used Sports Stadium with hotel and leisure activities around .

Contemporary geography of Ireland: Success and failure, the Irish story?

L'Irlande une île à la géographie passionnante qui a changé considérablement depuis ces 20 dernières années. Je vous propose un condensé de mon cours de géographie Irlandaise pour comprendre un peu mieux ce qui a transformer l'Île Emeraude.

The purpose of this paper is to understand the political, economic and cultural geography of the island of Ireland over the past 15 years. It considers the transformation of the Republic from “the sick man” of Europe to the arrival of the “Celtic Tiger”. And it questions about the political changes in Northern Ireland ten years after the Belfast agreement (1998). Finally it reviews the place of Ireland in the world and challenges its future after the downturn of th current financial crisis.

I. Reshaping the Irish Republic: the arrival of the Celtic Tiger
The Republic of Ireland has changed considerably over the past decade. Considered as the “sick man” of Europe, the country has been (before the crisis) one of the most attractive place in Europe for foreign investment. This course attempts to explain how this spectacular economic growth occurs and examines the Republic of Ireland before and after this recent development.

Past-Ireland: tradition and poverty
20 years ago, Ireland was one of the poorest country in Europe and deeply conservative due to its peripheral location in Europe. On the Northwestern edge of Europe, the country lived mainly on the (poor) agricultural resources and remained very rural. Poverty affected a large part of the population. Even until the mid-80s, 30% of Irish people were unemployed and 26% of the population were living beneath the poverty threshold. Ireland was at the brink of bankruptcy in 1988. Religion has had also a great influence on the Irish society. Divorced has been legalised in 1985 and homosexuality “decriminalised” only since 1993! And so far abortion remains still illegal. Emigration has been a solution to these economical problems since the middle of the 19th century. Millions and millions of Irish moved out of their home to the eastern part of Ireland, the UK or the USA. But Ireland changed considerably by this time.

The Economic boom
How Ireland has become one of the most prosperous places in Europe and has achieved to attract foreign investment? Several key reasons can explain the Irish success:
- The Irish government has planned a series of national agreement since 1988 for its industrial strategy. Furthermore Ireland remained competitive for its low industrial costs (wage bargaining) in an English-speaking country!
- Ireland had a reliable human capital educated and hard-worker. The social peace due to a strong partnership between employers, trade unions and organisations has been able to attract investment.
- Membership of the EU in 1973. It has brought capital of course but mainly widen the trading partners. Two-third of Irish exports are going now to the EU.
- Neo-liberal strategy with tax exemption and one of the lowest personal income taxes in Europe which enable to attract Foreign Direct Investment (FDI).

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The “Celtic Tiger” has shaped a new Ireland
For the first time for two centuries population of Ireland has started to rise in the 60s and this shows that Ireland is at last becoming more attractive after centuries of deprivation! Return migration and new migrants explains this trend. And it’s all the society who has been affected by this tremendous economic boom. Unemployment fell from 18% to 3% and wages have significantly risen. New forms of consumption and way of life have appeared like the increase of car use, properties and recreation thanks to new financial facilities. However it questions about the goodness of this evolution. Obesity rate is up 14% since 1998 and Irishmen are among the most obese in Europe! Furthermore alcohol consumption rose nearly half between 1981 and 2001. The Irish are the most beer-drinker in the World with 155 litres per person per year (UK=98, world average=77). Commuting and fast living is now the common way of life of most of the Irish population. The essential consequence of this sudden economic growth stays the enormous cost of living in the Republic, the second most expensive place to live in the EU after Finland.

Finally the success of the Celtic Tiger in the 90s questions about consumption and “Irishness”. Ireland is not definitely the same than before, moreover this development seems quite uneven and inequalities remain the shame of this success.

II. The dark side of change
Unfortunately the economic growth did not bring only good things in the Republic. This course carries out an exploration of the social and economic patterns of the recent change in Ireland. Has change been consistent and equal in Ireland? What are the current barriers the country is facing in?

Uneven and concentrated development
Globalisation in Ireland didn’t affect the whole island equally even if most parts of the country enjoyed an unprecedented success. The main cities such as Dublin, Cork or Galway have attracted most of the investment thanks to their better infrastructure and services. Even the regional cities throughout the country achieved the role of gateway for the local and national economy. However this success can be balance by the recent economic downturn which question about the stability of this development.

The monocentric dominance of Dublin
More than all other cities in Ireland, Dublin has become the core of the Irish economy concentrating 80% of the political institutions, 70% of company headquarters and almost all the financial services in Ireland. Dublin is also the heart of a huge urban area representing 40% of the population, which entailed massive stressed in its current infrastructure. Roads and public transport networks are now overcrowded because the State didn’t have enough money to improve the old networks. And the development of Dublin has been too fast to maintain and replace a proper infrastructure. Traffic-jam in Dublin has been compared that in India!

Social unevenness
Ireland has just become one of the most unequal countries in the world and the gap between rich and poor is still widening. Gender inequalities are also one of the largest in Europe! The economic growth has brought about a dual welfare system where the no-haves are dependant on voluntary and charity firstly concentrated in the cities. The rest of the population is spatial disadvantaged. Ireland and particularly Dublin is now the most multicultural city in Europe with the lowest rate of indigenous people! It is still an important challenge to integrate the foreign population in a country traditionally mono-ethnic after years of emigration.
The housing market remains always a crucial issue in Ireland despite the huge recent building boom; the country had the lowest number of dwellings in the EU in 1980. It reflects the relatively high average of household size with about 3 persons per accommodation. It is the result of historical lack of shortage and rising house price.

The collapse of the financial market is now a major threat to Ireland. The country has become very dependent of foreign investment and the security of the middle-class rested on the value of property. House price has risen dramatically till an average of €410,000, but economists evaluated that they are overvalued by 25%! In 1999, the construction sector accounted for 25% of the gross national product and employs 13% of the Irish work-force. The current economic downturn is dropping all the Irish economy in a durable crisis.

Learning Irish? Let's go!!!

Vous voulez apprendre quelques rudiments de Gaélique Irlandais ? Alors accrochez-vous et suivez les indications suivantes.

I. Prononciation
L’Irlandais paraît imprononçable pour un débutant. Les lettres et combinaisons de lettres se prononcent différemment selon de très nombreuses règles que je ne vais pas développer.
L’alphabet irlandais comporte 18 lettres (portant chacune le nom d’un arbre) :
- 5 voyelles : a, e, i, o, u
- 13 consonnes b, c, d, f, g, h, l, m, n, p, r, s, t
Le plus important est de savoir que chaque consonne a 2 qualités, elle est soit “slender” (faible) ou “broad” (forte).
Elle est broad si elle est précède ou suit une voyelle broad : A, O et U
Elle est slender si elle est précède ou suit une voyelle slender : E ou I
Cette règle affecte la prononciation et la conjugaison. Une consonne ne peut-être entourée que de 2 voyelles de la même famille !
Ex : buidéal (une bouteille), 2 slender entre le D, ou casóg (un blouson) 2 broad entre le S.

II. Les noms communs
Il existe 2 genres en Irlandais, le masculin et le féminin, cela affecte les conjugaisons et déclinaisons.
L’article définit pour les 2 genres est an au singulier et na au pluriel. Il n’existe pas d’article indéfinit
an garsún : le garçon ; na garsúin : les garçons ; garsúin : des garçons

Mauvaise nouvelle, il existe 4 déclinaisons (le nom s’accorde selon sa fonction dans la phrase) en Irlandais et elles diffèrent selon le genre et le nombre du nom !
- Le nominatif-accusatif : pour la fonction sujet et COD
- Le génitif : pour le complément du nom (cas possessif), les adjectifs et autres cas
- Le datif : pour la fonction COI
- Le vocatif

Nom-acc / Génitif / Datif / Vocatif
Singulier bád (bateau)/ bháid / don bád / a bháid
Pluriel báid / mbád / dosna bádaibh / a bháda

Bon je ne vais pas tous les faire, mais on imagine la difficulté car les terminaisons ne sont pas régulières à tous les noms.

Un peu de vocabulaire (nom au nominatif sing/pl) et prononciation
Fear/fir (pro : far/fir): homme
Leabhair/leabhair (lyour) : livre
Deoch/deocha (dyoch) : boisson
Scoil/Scoileanna (Sgol): école

III. Le verbe régulier
Il existe 5 temps en Irlandais : le present, le passé, l’imparfait, le futur et le conditionnel
Les verbes se conjuguent en ajoutant une terminaison (sans oublier de respecter la règle slender/broad).
Présent
Sg 1 –im
2 –ir (ann tú)
3 – ann sé
Pl 1 –imíd
2 –ann sibh
3 –id
Passé
Sg 1 –as
2 –is
3 – sé
Pl 1 –amair
2 –abhair (- sibh)
3 –adar

Au passé, imparfait et conditionnel, la particule do est ajoutée devant le verbe (forme affirmative uniquement et des modifications orthographiques peuvent survenir au verbe (ajout de h, de m par exemple).
La négation est ní au présent et níor au passé
L’intérogation se forme avec la particule an au présent et ar au passé au début de la phrase.
La phrase commence par le verbe !

Exemple :
Léim an leabhar (Lém one lyour) Je lis un livre
Ar tuigis na páipéir ? (Ar tiguis ne paapèr) As-tu compris les documents
Ní ólann sibh beoir. (Nii elaonn shiv biore) Vous ne buvez pas de bière
Do chuireadar an gadhar amuigh (De kirir one gayar emu) Ils ont mis le chien dehors.
Note : le verbe mettre cuirim (je met) prends un h au passé et un E (slender) pour conserver le R entre 2 voyelles slender.

Vocabulaire :
Caillim (Kaylhim): je perds
Caithim (kahim) : je dépense, utilise
Léim (lém): je lis
Olaim (olime): je bois
Scríobhaim (shriivim): j’écris
Féachaim (fiaxim) : je regarde

IV. Le verbe être
Il est irrégulier en voici les terminaisons
Présent : Affirmatif Négatif
Sg 1 táim nílim
2 táir, taoi, tá tú nílir
3 tá sé nil sé
Pl 1 táimíd nílimíd
2 ta sibh níl sibh
3 táid, táid siad nílid

Il est tellement irrégulier qu’il utilise une autre forme que ta pour la forme interrogative sans mot interrogatif: fuil!
Présent Affirmatif / Négatif
Sg 1 an bhfuil / ná fuilim
2 an bhfuilir / ná fuilir
3 an bhfuil sé / ná fuil sé
Pl 1 an bhfuilimíd / ná fuilimíd
2 an bhfuil sibh / ná fuil sibh
3 an bhfuilid / ná fuilid

Exemple :
Tá Seán I gBaile Átha Cliath, ach tá Mícheál agus Máire anso (Ta Shaan i Blaa-cléa, oc ta Méé-haal ogueuss Maari eunso) Jean est à Dublin, mais Michael et Marie sont ici.
L’ordre des mots est le même qu’en français excepté le verbe au début. Notez que le verbe être se conjugue au singulier quand le sujet n’est pas un pronom personnel.

An bhfuil sé ann? Bhfuil sé /ná fuil sé. (Eu vwil shé aonn) Est-il là ? Oui / Non
Conas tá tú ? (Conass ta tou) Comment vas-tu ?
Il n’existe pas de oui et de non en Irlandais. On répond à une question en reprenant le verbe de la question à l’affirmative ou négative

Le rôle des vagues dans l'érosion des côtes sédimentaires

Encore du littoral! Et oui, après quelques hésitations je publie une dissertation réalisée en cours de littoral à l'Université d'Ulster. J'ai eu 2.i (environ 60-70%) ce qui n'est pas trop mal malgré toute la peine que ma value ce travail.

Le sujet était : Waves are crucial in altering the morphology of modern sedimentary coastlines. Discuss.

The study of coastal processes has become very important because a large part of the world population lives on the coast, and the recent environmental changes challenge use and management of the shore. The current geomorphology of the coast is the result of different processes: the continental drift, the relative level of the sea and the action of marine or fluvial processes such as erosion or sedimentation. The sedimentary coasts present many specific features and forms in different parts of the world. Generally, sedimentary coastlines are on the trailing-edge coast or passive margin and are present on the edges of sedimentary basin in all latitudes. Numerous factors have a part in the alteration of geomorphology of coastlines but wave action seems to be crucial. Motion of the sea primarily affect changes on the coast. What is the decisive role of waves in generation of modern coastal sedimentary landforms? Firstly, this work will examine the generation of waves and the characteristics indispensable to providing an explanation about wave actions. Secondly, it will establish the prime action of waves on beaches and sandy coasts and, finally, it will identify a range of processes that enables to affect the geomorphology of coastlines.

I. Generation and features of waves
a) Generation of waves
Waves are the prime source of energy on the coast, which is why their study is so important to understand morphological change on the coast.
Firstly waves occur in seas and oceans but it is an atmospheric element which generates them: the wind. In the Earth system, the elements of the oceanic cell and atmospheric cell are very interdependent. Wind is caused by the differential gradient of pressure, and blows from high to low pressure, provoking a mechanical action on the sea surface which creates the disturbance. Nevertheless only the form of the wave is transmitted, not the water. Waves are the prime energy for coastal processes on the shoreline. There are two kinds of waves generated by different sources: the `sea waves΄ are caused by wind and `swell΄ waves that occurs during stormy weather. Swell waves have the longest period and affects the seabed on a deeper surface.
Coastlines are mainly affected by breaking waves that influence specifically physical processes. Waves break because the velocity of water particles in the wave crest is higher than the wave velocity (Masselink, 2005) and by reaching shallow water, wave height decreases and length increases. Moreover, different breaking waves exist depending on local conditions. Spilling waves occur in relatively flat seabeds in the surfing zone; the crest spills down the face of the wave by generating foam and bubbles. In a steeper seabed, the crest of the waves becomes almost vertical and collapses forward by plunging. These are the plunging waves which concentrate their energy instantaneously. Surging waves happen on the steepest beaches with a slow movement of swash and backwash (Galvin, 1968). These different breaking waves do not affect the coastline in the same way owing to energy dissipated specifically. Energy depends on wave height, wind speed, fetch length and wind duration.

b) Modification of waves on the nearshore
Secondly, several processes can explain the differences in energy delivered on the shoreline. The first phenomenon occurs when waves reach the shore, due to coastal orientation and water depth. Refraction of wave energy does not affect uniformly the coastline, although bathymetry changes the angle of the wave crest and modifies water energy. The main consequence is the bending of wave shapes along the coast. Refraction concentrates wave energy on headlands. As a result, high energy and low energy coastlines are characterized respectively by processes of erosion and deposition.
Climatologic phenomenon such as storms, directly influence the power of waves on the coastlines. Extreme events like storms occur periodically in every place in the world. In high latitudes, low pressures system, cyclones, are frequent, whereas in tropical zones these events are rarer but much more powerful. Low pressures provoke a rise in water-level and swell waves transform the coastlines significantly. The east coast of the USA is a good example of low sedimentary coastlines, constituting of barrier islands and deltas. Violent climatologic events such as hurricanes modify the morphology of the shore considerably by breaking the weak balance between erosion and sedimentation. Some barrier islands can disappear after a single event, like those on the Gulf of Mexico after hurricane Gilbert in 1988 (Dingler et al, 1993). Tsunamis and flooding are also episodic events which entail massive consequence on the coast.

II. Actions of waves on the coastlines
a) Action of waves on beaches
Beaches are the most dynamic parts of the coast. They constitute a large amount of deposit-sediment along the coast and are subject to the action of waves and the wind. This deposit sediment constitutes a response to wave energy. Beach profiles can be extremely different in the world; three types of beaches can be identified: the dissipative, reflective and intermediate beaches. Flat beaches with fine sand characterize the dissipative profile. Wave energy on these beaches is generally high with spilling waves. It is the case of long and straight beaches of the Bay of Biscayne in the South-West of France along the Aquitain sedimentary basin. Reflective beaches take place more often in sheltered areas where refraction of the waves is important. They are steeper with coarser-grained sand and mainly associated with surging breakers. Dissipative beaches generate original beach shapes such as the crescent beaches of the South-east coast of the USA (Masselink et al, 1997). Intermediate beaches associate different features of reflective and dissipative beaches and constitute the most unstable profile. Waves bring sediment and energy to sediment transportation. Motion of sediments is function of waves velocity and the size of the grains, they are carried by different water movements along the nearshore. Different local currents occur in the surfing zone and take part in beach morphology changes. Rip currents are a consequence of different level energy points on the nearshore. The water moves from high energy on the front waves to low energy offshore by carrying sediment. [Doc] Sediment entrainment in function of Flow velocity and grain size. (Established by Hjulström, 1935)The longshore currents are parallel to the shore and carry waves after waves sediment in the same way that wave direction (Komar, 1998). However beaches are able to change under several factor actions. State of the beach can be defined as the association of sediment characteristics, wave actions, anterior beach state and the influence of tide and wind.

b) Action of waves on rocky coasts
Sedimentary coasts are not solely constituted of long and straight beaches but also rocky coasts primarily with cliffs. Wave actions have considerable action owing to the relative weak and soft lithology of sedimentary rocks compared to granitic rocks. Waves generate two types of physicochemical weathering on the cliffs. Firstly is a hydraulic action, where waves exert a massive pressure on the rocks due to water movement, increasing lines of weakness and cavities. In the other hand, transportation of sediment provokes the phenomenon of abrasion on the cliff and dislocation of angular blocks, which is why rocks on the coastlines appear smooth. This mechanical phenomenon occurs solely between the wave crests and below still sea-water. Cliff erosion produces spectacular but ephemeral features on the coastline. For example, sea caves, arches and sea stacks are the consequence of differential hardness in rock morphology (Bird, 1993). The coast of Victoria in Australia with twelve sea stacks (called the Twelve Apostles) provides an impressive example of cliff erosion on sedimentary coastlines. A succession of headlands and embayment is the result of differential erosion on the cliffs according to their resistance. Hence, the coastline is the result of erosive force of waves against the resistance of the rocks but cliff recession is a cyclic process, sediments deposited at the feet of the cliff can cut off the action of waves for a while (Savigear, 1952, 1962). However, cliff erosion rate is related to other factors than solely wave actions and, different types of rocks generate different coastlines that are function of other subaerial processes.

III. Other processes
Waves play a considerable role in altering coastlines but a number of other processes influence the morphology of the coast significantly. Some processes primarily affect some parts of the globe and others can be everywhere.
Wave action has massive consequence in the mid-latitude coasts but not in high latitude or tropical zones. These regions are characterized by fairly weak wave action and are affected by other more important processes. Hence the climate determines different types of erosion according to the weather. In high latitudes mechanical weathering is predominant. Ice created in winter is an extremely powerful erosion factor, and ice abrasion generates a large amount of sediment which contributes to erosion of the rocks. Frost weathering is also responsible for large dislodgement and quarrying on rocks along the coast. The tropical zone is characterized by very particular climatic conditions that promote chemical weathering. Chemical reactions increase in warm water and generate very particular erosion shapes. The most significant example is dissolution of limestone that creates original karst features. Ha-long Bay in Viet-Nam or Phangnga Bay in Thailand present impressive tower karst and steep eroded cliffs in their bases.
Other azonal processes occur at all latitudes. Climate and, particularly, rainfalls are powerful factors of disturbance of the rocky coasts. Hillslope processes can be generated by rainfalls and provoke mass movement by gravity. In this case, the conjunction of actions of waves and subaerial processes contribute to the regression of the cliff (Emery and Khun, 1982). Sedimentary coasts of South and East Britain are a good illustration of this phenomenon. Temperature and, primarily, repetition of frost and defrost bring about a strong mechanical constraint on the rocks. Water infiltrates into pores and faults and when temperature goes down below zero Celsius frost leads to fracturing the rocks. Haloclasty is the same action with salt when it grows from crystal to solution. Biological processes may alter coastlines as well (Wellman and Wilson, 1965). Organic activity such as gastropods and some grazing animals, can remote sediments on the seabed. Researcher measured that sponges have been able to remove 6-7 kg of material on one square metre during 100 days on the carbonate coast of Bermuda (Neumann, 1966). Furthermore previous relative sea-levels account for the current coastal landforms; past climates are directly implicated in sea-level changes. Coastlines have changed many times during the past and contributed modifying landforms on the coast by successive regression and transgression periods.

Conclusion
To sum up, waves do not play the same role in altering the geomorphology of modern sedimentary coastlines everywhere in the world. In the mid-latitude they have massive consequences and play a large part in the process of erosion and sediment transportation. Waves are the prime source of energy and contribute to modifying coastal landform on these coasts. However, coastlines are the result of a complex array of processes on a larger scale and it is crucial to consider inheritance of past climate and relative sea-level changes. Numbers of other physicochemical such as wind, temperature, chemical reactions or biological actions processes affect the coasts and the structure and lithology of rocks is also a critical factor in understanding erosion of coastal landforms. Today the main issue concerning coastal environment is the impact of global warming which could affect climate and sea-level. Many uncertainties remains about increase of erosion processes; it constitutes a high problem for populations who live on the coast.


References

Carter RW, Coastal Environments (1988) London, Academic Press Limited

Schwartz ML, Encyclopedia of Coastal Science (2005), Dordrecht, Springer

Woodroffe CD, Coasts (2002), Cambridge, Cambridge University Press

Nouveau visage de Belfast

Plus que tout autre ville européenne, Belfast à subit de profondes transformations économiques durant la seconde partie du 20ème siècle. Ces 2 principales activités, le textile et la construction navale, se sont effondrés dans les années 70 et ont laissé d’importantes friches dans le tissu urbain. Cet article présente une brève présentation de la ville de Belfast très liée à son industrialisation puis les transformations récentes en cours visant à créer la ville de demain.

Belfast fut la seule ville d’Irlande touché par la révolution industrielle dés le 18ème siècle, notamment avec l’industrie du lin, le tabac et la construction navale. L’histoire de la ville fut intimement liée à celle de son plus grand employeur, le chantier naval Harland and Wolff (H&W).


- 1861 : création du chantier naval H&W au fond de la baie du Lough Belfast.
- 1900 : la navale se développe rapidement avec la construction de liners, paquebots de lignes. Belfast est la 1ère ville d’Irlande et accueille une foule de migrant venant d’Ecosse, d’Angleterre ou de la campagne d’Ulster.
- 1911 : construction du Titanic et de ses sisterships, l’entreprise emploie à cette époque 35 000 personnes
- Post 2nd guerre mondiale : l’avion concurrence le bateau, la puissance industrielle de H&W décline
- 1989 : H&W est racheté par une société Norvégienne
- 2003 : lancement du dernier navire, les chantiers produisent maintenant de l’ingénierie lourde (Turbines, éoliennes, ponts etc.). Les effectifs sont réduits à 3000 personnes

Ce repli de l’activité navale a laissé de vastes friches sur la façade maritime de la ville. Aujourd’hui elle accueille l’aéroport Belfast city airport sur la rive est, par le port de commerce sur la rive Ouest et par les chantiers au fond de la baie.

La ville est aujourd’hui un grand chantier où les grues de chantier sont omniprésentes. Premier espace touché : les bords de la Lagan à proximité du centre-ville. Le dôme du Waterfront hall, une grande salle de spectacle et d’exposition ouverte en 1997, domine les quais avec la BT Tower (British Telecom) et l’hôtel Belfast Hilton (1998).

La ville est également le siège d’un grand projet urbanistique de £97 millions sur le site des chantiers navals H&W : Titanic Quarter. Ce projet cherche a redonner une nouvelle fonction aux vaste terrains vagues de Queen’s Island où est situé H&W en créant de toute pièce un nouveau quartier avec ses commerces, ses logements, ses bureaux etc.
Titanic Quarter (TQ) constitue l’un des plus grands projet de réhabilitation de front de mer en Europe avec la rénovation de 185 acres (75 hectares).
Un peu à la façon « Ile de Nantes », TQ verra la construction de bâtiments multifonctionnels incluant des écoles, des commerces, des logements sur plus de 300 000 m² (3,3 millions sqft).
Un espace industrialo-commercial de 32 500 m², Channel Commercial Park, devrait voir le jour et contribuer aux 20 000 emplois promis du quartier. Le site est aussi déjà devenu un espace de loisir et de sortie évènementielle avec l’installation d’une salle de spectacle de 10 000 places (l’Odyssey Arena).
Mais quels avantages Titanic Quarter offre aux investisseurs ? Tout d’abord une position particulièrement attrayante à 20 minutes du centre-ville et au cœur des réseaux de transport de la ville (autoroute, gare, aéroport). Les bureaux seront également 60% moins cher qu’à Dublin où les prix se sont envolés depuis 10 ans. Les réseaux numériques seront également à la hauteur du projet avec une connection à très haut débit avec Dublin.
Il faut espérer que cet investissement installera un développement économique durable pour cette ville gravement touché par la crise.

Vision d'artiste du projet avec les 2 empreintes du Titanic et de l'Olympic sur leur lieu de naissance

Références :
Titanic Quarter
£1.5bn Titanic plan boost, Belfast Telegraph
'End of an era' at Belfast shipyard, BBC news NI

Field work in Portballintrae

Runkerry strand avec la river Bush au premier plan

Petite étude du dynamisme littoral sur la côte Nord de l’Irlande. Direction Runkerry Strand une vaste plage entre le village de Portbalintrae et la Chaussée des Géants.

a) Les processus marins et leurs actions sur la plage

L’énergie des vagues permet de définir le type de plage, le profile et les caractéristiques de celle-ci. Les plages peuvent-être divisé en 2 catégories :
- les plages dissipatives peu inclinées, principalement sableuses caractéristiques des côtes à barrières (large accumulation de sable sur une large portion de la côte, les Landes en France).
- Les plages réflectives, souvent plus abritées, à plus forte pente et à sédiments plus grossiers (galets, cailloux etc.). Exemple : côte Est des Etats-Unis, côte languedocienne.

La plage de Runkerry est représentative de la mobilité des processus côtier car c’est à la fois une plage dissipative en Eté et une plage réflective en Hiver. C’est le résultat de la différence d’énergie reçue entre les 2 saisons. En hiver, les fréquentes tempêtes entre l'Islande et l'Irlande génèrent des « Swell Waves » (vagues gonflantes). Ces vagues ne sont pas générées par le vent mais par la dépression et mettent en mouvement le fond de la mer sur une importante épaisseur en atteignant les eaux moins profondes de la côte. (Les vagues « normales » sont générés par le vent).

Les déplacement des sédiments a l'interieur de la plage (qui forme une cellule), forment un cycle. Tout d'abord il y a autant de sediments rentrant dans la cellule (embouchure de la river Bush), qu'il n'en sort (par la dérive littorale). Le profil dissipatif en été entraîne les sédiments vers la baie tandis que les Swell waves les remobilisent en direction des dunes en hiver. Le transfert du sable vers le large en période estival a un impact direct sur les vagues, elles se brisent en avant de la côte et sur une largeur beaucoup plus réduite qu'en hiver.

Ce phénomène cyclique est étonamment stable et les processus d'érosion sont limités bien que Runkerry Strand est la plage recevant le plus d’énergie sur la côte Nord de l’Irlande à cause de la morphologie du littoral et l'exposition de la plage (SW-NE).

b) Etude de la dune

Un vaste champs de dune se dresse derrière la plage. Cette importante accumulation est le temoin du dynamisme passé de la plage. La dune couvre un espace de 200 acres (80 ha) formé il y a 5-6000 ans et presque totalement végétalisé (presque pas de dune mobile comme chez nous!). Les sédiments viennent principalement des débris issus des précédant âges glaciaires. Cependant la dune à été remodelé récemment en relation direct avec le climat. Il y a 4-500 ans, durant le "petit-âge glaciaire", le climat en Irlande était plus froid et plus sec (heureusement j'y étais pas!). Toute la végétation de la dune a disparu et le vent a pu remobiliser les sédiments en masse en direction des terres.

La végétation a ensuite réoccuppée la dune et stoppée son déplacement. L'environnement dunaire est aujourd'hui soumis à l'oscillation Nord-Atlantique (NAO) entre la dépression du Groenland et l'anticyclone des Açores qui génère les vents en Europe de l'ouest.

L'occupation humaine est la principale menace sur la dune avec l'impnatation d'inévitables golfes (il y en a sur toute la côte entre Portstewart et Portballintrae!) et le piétinement par les touristes. Cependant les autorités locales effectuent le minimum d'intervention pour garder le littoral "naturel".

Coastal Environments

si vous voulez tout savoir sur les vagues et ou l'environnement côtier, suivez mes cours de Littoral!

Introduction to Coastal Processes

Figures and pictures on :
www.science.ulster.ac.uk/envsci/coastal.html

Definition of Coast: the coastal zone is that space in which terrestrial environments influence marine environments and vice versa. The coastal zone is of variable width and may also change with time.
Delimitation of zonal boundaries is not normally possible; more often such limits are marked by an environmental gradient of transition. At any one locality the coastal zone maybe characterized according to physical, biological or cultural criteria. These need not, and, in fact rarely do, coincide. RWG Carter, 1988

Change in Coastal Environments
Episodic, cyclic, progressive. Scientific research must consider time frames in nature and seek the cause of change.
- The cause provides better understanding
- Results are more universally applicable
- Reliance on indicators only may overstate problem
- Indicators may be tempered/buffered by external influences (sea level)
- Reaction may be incremental (cliffs)
Scientific understanding of physical process required to overcome false perceptions of managers.

Types of Coast
Classification
- Highly varied and complex systems
- Numerous types of classifications
- Classifications schemes are used to reduce a highly variable world into smaller groups
- Commonly use easer tectonic or sea-level history as the dominant underlying control

How do we classify coasts?
2 basic approaches taken:
1. Genetic classification:
- Sea-level changes
- Glaciation
- Sediment supply
- Wave and tidal regime

2. Tectonic classification:
- Plate tectonics theory to give certain coastal types
- Broad scale
- Inman and Nordstrom (1971)

Tectonic classification
Collision Coast (Active coast)
Typically high, step cliff lines (rock folding) narrow shelf.
(a) Continental collision coast: continental margin located along a collision boundary (west coast of South America)
(b) Island Arc Coast (western Pacific) A Coast located along a collision margin of an island arc system.

Trailing edge coasts: plate imbedded coast that faces a spreading centre

Subcategories

(i) Neo-trailing edge coast: edge newly rifting landmass, similar to collision coast, volcanic and seismic activity
(ii) Amero trailing edge coast: depositional continental shelves.
(iii) Afro trailing edge coast.

Three morphological length scales identified
1st order 100 x 100 x 10 km
2nd order 100 x 10 x 1 km (canyons, estuaries, cliffs)
3rd order 1 x 0,1 x 0,01 km (beaches, sand banks, tidal inlets)
For large scales classifications the most useful is the 1st order division.

Coast can be divided up into 3 basic forms:
- Depositional
- Stable
- Eroding

Waves
Introduction
- Arise from the disturbance of a water body though the action of wind, seismic activity or planetary forces
- Blows from high to low pressures
- Energy momentum is transmitted in the direction of the force causing the disturbance
- Only the wave form itself and not the water that is transmitted
- Most energy lost from a wave when it encounters shallow waters. Some dispersed radially, through mertia and also though convection. The energy that wave release at the coast is responsible for driving a large proportion of contemporary coastal processes - sediment transport to ecological adaptability.

Wave parameters
Principle description of waves is by their Height, Length and water depth.
Wave classifications
SEA Waves (or in an ocean, lake puddle): are in the process of actually receiving wind energy. Also known as gravity waves (generated by wind). These waves form when a certain threshold is crossed called the Instability Threshold given by Helmholtz’s formula.

SWELL Waves are the end product of a storm event and are no longer receiving energy directly from the wind. Also generated by tides.

Wave energy
- Waves are generated as winds blow over the sea surface transferring energy to the water surface in the form of waves.
- Their magnitude is a function of duration, fetch and wind speed.
- Energy carries energy as they propagate from the generation area.
- Waves transfer energy to the shore as they shoal and break.

Facts: - Energy in wave travels with the speed of the wave groups.
- Energy per unit area of sea is 0.5gda²
- Energy depends on the square of the amplitude
- It is independent of wavelength, frequency or water depth.

Wave decay
Waves spread out from the generation zone (storm)
Waves decay when waves lean the generation area they are known as `Swell Waves΄.
Pattern of spread circumferentially and radially
Leadings waves of the waves group is rapidly depleted though initiation of motion – half of its energy lost every wavelength.
Eventually dies to be replaced by another leading wave
Energy in swell wave decreases in space and time

In deep water
Wave velocity depends of the wavelength: longer wavelength moves faster than smaller waves.
Smaller waves also lose their energy faster to overcome viscosity effects. The group velocity is half the speed of individual waves, which move through the wave field.
In shallow water
Wave velocity depends of the depth of the water. Longer wavelength swells arrive at the coast before the smaller waves.

Nearshore modification of waves
Wave refraction
Refraction of wave is the gradual reorientation of waves that are at an angle to changing sea bed depths (bathymetry) or current they are passing over.
A wave approaching at an angle to a change in bathymetry will experience its effects on different parts of the wave at different times.
As the wave approaches the depth change wave height, length and velocity all begin to change at different parts of the wave.
Waves travel more slowly in shallow water.
This result in the bending of the wave form towards a parallel to the bathymetry until eventually the wave crest is re-oriented to the bottom contours (is equal along the entire crest).
Energy is delivered to the coastline to various degrees according to the wavelength and coastal orientation.
Where orthogonals diverge the energy per unit crest decreases, where orthogonals converge the energy per unit crest increases.

Wave refraction models
A number of computer models available to predict wave refraction according to the inputted variables.
The models are based in complex algorithms and can be either 2D or 3D in their calculations.
Various input parameters such as deep water wave attributes wind speed and direction as well as local bathymetry details.
Production of maps of water energy along the coast
Usefulness of the models is constrained by the quality of the input data (bathymetry) interpolations, hind-casting techniques).

Wave diffraction
Defined as the transfer of energy along the wave crest (lateral transfer of energy).
Occurs inside shadow zones (behind islands, jetty)
Transported wave energy reaches the diffracted zone by travelling along the wave crests.
These zones are normally turbulent.

Wave reflection
Incident wave meeting an obstacle such as cliff or beach may be reflected back off in the opposite direction.
Reflected waves have similar wave dimensions as the incident waves (depending on the reflecting obstacle) and if reflected back perpendicular standing wave may form.
Reflected waves are important sediment transport mechanisms within coastal zones.

Wave shoaling (in shallow water)
Depth/Length is known as `wave base΄ or `relative depth΄.
At this point the motions of the surface waves just reach the sea bed.
However, significant wave/sea bed interactions do not occur until d/L<0.25
Sea bed experts frictional resistance to wave motions which causes energy loss –slows down wave form- deformation.
Particle velocities and orbits become asymmetrical.
As the shoaling occurs the wave field tries to maintain energy mass and momentum turbulence, breaking, decomposition, etc. Energy is transformed into a breaking wave.
Gradual slowing of the wave crest causes transfer of kinetic energy (motion) to potential energy – decrease in wavelength and increase in wave height –known as attenuation.

Breaking waves
Any energy remaining after reflection, diffraction etc. next form of energy release is by breaking waves.
Waves break when horizontal water velocity at the crest exceeds the wave group velocity. Breaker types:
- Spilling Breaker: upper part of the crest becomes over-steepened and spills down the frontsides continually breaking and losing energy across the surf zone.
- Plunging Breaker: entire wave front steepens, curls and collapses or plunges releasing most of its energy instantaneously.
- Surging Breaker: Flat low waves that do not become oversteepened or break they more slowly up and down the beach, most energy reflected back to sea.